Manus and Roman Marriage free essay sample

There were two types of  marriage  known to the law, one with  manus  and one without, whom he could punish, sell, or even kill as he saw fit. Divorce, in marriage with manus, was always possible at the instance of the husband In the early republic the family had formed a social, economic, and legal unity. The woman generally married into her husband’s family and came under his legal authority (or that of his father if he was still alive), and her dowry merged with the rest of the estate under the ownership of the husband. The husband managed the family’s affairs outside the house, while the wife was custodian within. Marriage was an arrangement for life; divorces were rare and granted only in cases of serious moral infractions, such as adultery or wine-tippling on the part of the wife. Manus  was the autocratic power of the husband over the wife, corresponding to  patria potestas  over the sons. We will write a custom essay sample on Manus and Roman Marriage or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Marriage without manus, by far the more common in all periods of Roman  history  except possibly the very earliest. The property  of the spouses remained distinct ither party was able to put an end to the relationship at will. Formed by beginning conjugal life with the intention of being married, normally by bringing the bride to the groom’s house. (Provided the parties were above the age of puberty and, had their father’s consent) The wife remained under her father’s  potestas  if he were still alive if he were dead, she continued to have the same guardian as before marriage. Both spouses had to be citizens, or if one was not, he or she must have  conubium  (the right, sometimes given to non-Romans, of contracting a Roman marriage). commonly called â€Å"free marriage,† no longer came into her husband’s power or property regime but remained in that of her father; upon her father’s death she became independent with rights to own and dispose of property. But she was not a member of the family of her husband and children and had no claim to inheritance from them, even though she lived with them in the same house. Because many women inherited part of their fathers’ estates, they could use their independent fortunes to exert influence on husbands, children, and people outside the house. In the same period divorce became far more common; moral infractions were no longer needed to justify divorce, which could be initiated by either side. Frequent divorce and remarriage went hand in hand with the separation of marital property. There is plausibility in the suggestion that these changes were brought on by a desire of the women’s fathers to avoid having their daughters’ portions of the larger family estates slip irrevocably into the hands of their husbands. Although the changes in law and practice were not motivated by any movement to emancipate women, the result was that propertied women of the late republic, always excluded from the public sphere of male citizens, came to enjoy a degree of freedom and social power unusual before the 20th century. Divorce  was permitted to the husband in early Rome only on specific grounds. Later, divorce was always possible at the instance of the husband in cases of marriage with  manus; in marriage without  manus, either party was free to put an end to the relationship. A formal letter was usually given to the spouse, but any manifestation of intention to end the relationship—made clear to the other party and accompanied by actual parting—was all that was legally necessary. The Christian emperors imposed penalties on those who divorced without good reason, including prohibitions on remarriage, but the power of the parties to end the marriage by their own act was not taken away. A form of marriage, was becoming prevalent. Under this form, the wife Ancient  Roman law  recognized three forms of marriage. Confarreatio  was marked by a highly solemnized ceremony involving numerous witnesses and animal sacrifice. It was usually reserved for patrician families. Coemptio, used by many plebeians, was effectively marriage by purchase, usus, the most informal variety, was marriage simply by mutualconsent  and evidence of extended cohabitation. Roman  law  generally placed the woman under the control of her husband and on the same footing as children. Under Roman law no slave could  contractmarriage with either another slave or a free person, but the union of male and female slaves was recognized for various purposes.

Team Activity and Principles of Team Management

Team Activity and Principles of Team Management Introduction It has been observed that the culture of an organization that is built around teams is strikingly different from an organization built in a traditional hierarchical fashion.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Team Activity and Principles of Team Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Some of the differences lie in commitment to goals, representation / awareness of strategic plans consistent presence of job performance indicators, employees dividing tasks and taking ownership of work and setting / meeting of new levels of performance are common to organizations built around teams (Dew 3). However it is also important to know when it is important to form teams as teams are known to work well where the tasks involved are complex and can be fragmented. The task of selecting when to form teams is a management role and the communication and leadership of the team must be directed from the administration (Dew 5). In this report the discussion presented will provide information on a team activity and reasons based on principles of team management in support of the activity as well as areas that could have been improved. The Team Activity The activity involved was the organization of a cultural night show by a group of students from my home country. Once the date was set the group sat down and had a meeting to select a leader. In the selection of a leader the group felt it was important to select an individual with strong leadership qualities. Among the qualities desired included; an ability to withhold personal opinions to allow other members have a say, good listening ability, ability to direct a discussion without favoritism, draw out opinions of all participants and ability to build consensus rather forcing decisions on members (Kriel, Singh, de Beer, Louw, Muton, Roussouw, Berning and du Toit 42). Following this initial discussion a vote was conducted and a leader was selected. Once the team leader was in place the discussion continued and selected the various officials that would be required to complete the task successfully. After forming a complete team of leaders the committee formed set about preparing a timetable and order of tasks to be completed. In addition to this it was also mentioned that random meetings could be called among selected individuals to brainstorm and complete the various tasks. The event was eventually completed successfully but not without some unexpected problems. Among the problems that were identified was the case that some of the members were given more tasks than they could handle in the allocated time.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Owing to this there were numerous delays which could have been avoided had there been better communication and additional support for the officials (Kriel et al. 41). One of the st rengths of teamwork is the ability to utilize on the support of other members and this is one area where the team failed to fully comprehend. Another problem that was experienced in the team was poor conflict management. Despite the fact that the leader selected was good for the job the team consisted of several members all with different ideas and opinions. The result was that during brain storming exercises there was too much time wasted on trying to push various opinions home. It appeared that the team lacked a unified goal and this led to wastage of time. It is reported that poor communication can prevent a team from achieving its goal and threaten its survival (Kriel et al. 38). This point was most evident in the initial planning meetings held by the group. On the other hand one of the best outcomes of the event was the increased rapport that arose between members as the days progressed. Owing to the ability of the leader to keep the members focused as well as remind team membe rs of the goal of the committee it was much easier to overcome hurdles caused by different opinions. It was through the persistence of the group leader that members were constantly reminded of individual accountability and group responsibility (Kriel et al. 41). The cultural night ended up a successful event and the group managed to generate a reasonable amount of revenue from various sources. Bibliography Dew, John Robert. Managing in a Team Environment. Westport: Quorum Books, 1998. Kriel, G., D. Singh, A. de Beer, H, Louw, J. Mouton, D. Rossouw, J. Berning and D. du Toit. Focus on Management Principles: A Generic Approach. South Africa: Paarl print.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Team Activity and Principles of Team Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More

Empirical Paper Assignment Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Empirical Assignment - Research Paper Example The rate however increased in five states and remained constant in 11 other states. Kentucky recorded the most significant percentage decrement, though the state’s unemployment rate remained above the nation’s average value. There were additional job opportunities in the state in October but some people also left their jobs, with retirees as examples of those who left their jobs. The lost jobs in Kentucky were however filled with new employees and not really lost from the economy. Kentucky recorded the greatest fall in unemployment rate with a deviation of 0.5 percent while four other states realized a decrease of 0.4 percent in their unemployment rates. Unemployment rates per state remained lower that national statistics in Rocky Mountain States. On the national level, unemployment rate reduced by 0.1 percent, from 5.9 percent in September and this resulted from creation of 214000 new jobs. The report includes states’ unemployment rates for September and October of the year 2014 and for the month of October 2013 (Sparshott 1). The author’s statistics are reliable because data and generated graphs from FRED support them. Below are graphs of two indicators of employment rates, as retrieved from FRED databases that support the author’s report. The graphs, inteprated together, offers information that is consistent with Sspartshott’s report and therefofe support the author’s viewpoint. From graph 1, it is evident that employment rates have been increasing, steadily, over the past one year. Consistency in the increament can be used to forecast further increament to october and the rest of the months in the year 2014. Consequently, it can be concluded that the number of employments in the private sector improved from its value in September 2014 into October 2014. The graph of number of employment in the public sector is however unstable and suggests a decrease in employment rate from September 2014 to October 2014. Rate of

Enhancing the Marketing Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Enhancing the Marketing Plan - Essay Example Further, the macro environmental factors will also be considered in the paper to understand the significant trend which can impact on the business of the company. Company’s Competitor Geno's Sports Apparel deals in athletic footwear and apparel products and seeks to achieve higher sales and good brand reputation. The athletic footwear and apparel industry is considered as highly competitive as there are several big players in the market where Geno’s Sports Apparel operates. The major competitor of Geno’s Sports Apparel in terms of athletic footwear products is Finish Line which operates in the similar marketing segment. Besides Finish Line, Geno’s Sports Apparel also faces a direct competition from other athletic goods providing organizations such as Payless ShoeSource, Dick’s Sporting Goods among others. The major strengths of Finish Line, one of the biggest competitors is the ability to understand the preferences of customers and act accordingly. Thus, the company offers coupons and discounts to the customers to increase sales. Finish line is much concerned about promoting latest products to the customers. The major weakness of Finish Line has been the number of retail outlets. The number of stores of Finish Line is less which creates difficulty for the company to distribute products effectively. Besides, providing newest products can also cost more and are inefficient in this business environment as many customers can concentrate on saving money and purchasing inexpensive products due to economic downturn (Sweeney, 2009). The other competitors named Payless ShoeSource have good geographic location which provides the company a competitive advantage. Its business is expanded in almost 50 counties within the international market. Payless ShoeSource has great financial strength which helps to spread the business globally. Besides, the sales in women’s shoe category are strong and the company has also strong position in t he market of the USA. The major weakness of Payless ShoeSource is higher fixed cost which led to lower profit margin. Furthermore, the company experienced huge amount of loss due to surplus inventory. The business of Payless ShoeSource is highly reliant on third party producers which make the company much vulnerable to survive in the competitive market (Cullin, 2007). Differentiation of Products Differentiation is necessary in order to improve the business and develop a unique brand identity. The main differentiation of Geno’s Sports Apparel with respect to the other competitors is the innovative marketing strategy. Geno’s Sports Apparel will provide tailored retailing programs and develop exclusive store atmosphere which replicates a distinct retailing style than other rivals. The effective enactment of this strategy helps the company to increase the customer base and preserve brand reliability. Geno’s Sports Apparel can also differentiates the brand from close st competitor Finish Line through providing customers with ranges of athletic attires which are designed according to their requirement. The company needs to offer focused collection of sports equipments to the customers which is the other differentiating factor (Sweeney, 2009). Through the advanced marketing communication strategies, such as implementing good customer service model, Geno’

BLUE STEEL Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

BLUE STEEL - Essay Example As Turner fights for her badge and cases helped by Detective Nick, she is trying to imagine her relationship with a murder. She decides to spend the night with Mann when she watches her best friend killed. Turner hunts for the killer and after a long confrontation and wounds that she manages to kill Hunt. There are many themes and lessons throughout this file as discussed below. Bullet with her the name of Megan is one most revealed theme in the movie. Eugene recreates the supermarket scene, terms the gun as a lucky object, and puts it in use. Hunt engraves Turner’s name on the bullets, which Hunt uses to kill his victims. If Hunt had no reason for this act then his acts are psycho behaviors yet the blue steel glory sequence connected Megan’s body with her gun’s blue steel. Megan is associated with the killings when Eugene assigns her name on the bullets used in the killings (Tasker, 1998). The film’s exchange of sexuality as illustrated Mann describes a m an cut off his penis in a cab by a prostitute and not her wife. This story reveals the construction of women’s role in men’s affairs when the man’s penis was misplaced. In the story where the hooker has a needle ever ready and skills of sewing reveals the womanly trope of intertwining and male wish for tamed whore. Passing back and onwards of someone’s penis shows the suitable and unsuitable use of phallic power. Exchange of guns at the start of the film connected to the back and forth at the end of the film. Both passing of bullets and penis represents the issue of inaccessible economies operating between both male and female and the care both genders ought to have for their phalluses. Hunt pisses off when he sees a woman shooting a man in the supermarket. Hunt finds in Turner a beautiful person who is able to serve a public violence and this is which is a form of over-recognition. This strange recognition shows the reliance of yuppie devil for his indiv iduality. Such psychotic characters as constructed towards gender of feminine heroes are evident in the film. As the film starts, Megan kills a man on her first day in job and a customer who is already troubled before the shooting started pockets the man’s gun. Curtis’ social life starts when Silver plans for a date but she does not suspect why he is up to her. Another scene is created when Curtis and her father leaves home when Silver comes whose characters are intelligent and sets things up such that Curtis is seen as the killer herself (Freud, 1995). Blue steel is a thriller that has a shock and afterwards a surprise. One feels dumb after moving through the scenes of the film. For instance, Megan meets unexpected horrors by Strode and sexually abused in a brutal rape and made a device of sexual bias and rejected by the whole society. Megan is a new cop and helps prevent theft in a store by shooting assailant who were armed. After the killings, since a customer pocke ted the gun of the assailant killed and therefore Megan is in trouble because the department terms him as unarmed person. Her department disowns her for killing innocent man and Hunt starts killing people in the streets with the bullets engraved with Megan’s name. Movies like this that indulge the psychology, provide more reasons on murderer’s behavior of anti-sociality. In addition, before Megan and Eugene had sex, Eugene asks her to take away the gun

Merton’s Theory of Scientific Ethos

Merton’s Theory of Scientific Ethos Robert Merton and the institutional imperatives of organised science. Do you think that the normative structure of science is working today? Why? Robert Merton has been hailed as the most important American sociologist of the 20th century[1]. His oeuvre includes works on the theory of knowledge, the sociology of science as well as functional and structural analysis. This essay will examine one of the most significant claims of Merton, that is that science is regulated by four distinct norms. While his work has arguably to the foundation of a whole academic discipline[2], the normative notion of science itself unites various strands of enquiry that are testament to the diverse personal and scientific interests of Merton. In nuce, Merton’s claim that science is essentially a normative endeavour conducted to the tune of shared ethical rules, straddles the fields of the philosophy of science and theories of knowledge just as it draws on assumptions located in the domain of moral philosophy and the theory of truth. The essay will approach this complex in the following way. First, Merton’s claims will be outlined in as much detail as possible. Second, the essay will sketch the main lines of criticism that Merton’s theory of scientific ethos has attracted. Finally, an example of scientific debate will be examined in view of Merton’s claim that will allow us to assess the validity and usefulness of Merton’s theory. Merton’s thesis about the normative structure of science goes back to an article he published originally in 1942, early on in his career[3]. The essay is short and, with the exception of mentioning two works by Talcott Parsons, makes no references to its immediate philosophical context, the emerging sociology of science. Furthermore, Max Weber is not mentioned at all throughout the piece. Nevertheless the article has become one of the most celebrated and debated publications in the theory of science. Merton contends that science is characterised by four interconnected but distinct organisational principles. These principles are ethical in nature and function as structural imperatives for science. First, science is universal insofar as contributions to it are ‘assessed on merit and significance’[4]. Second, scientists judge scientific theses against empirical material that is available, and ‘suspend judgement’ until all the facts are known. Merton calls this ‘a methodological and institutional mandate’[5]. Third, Merton maintains that scientists are committed to disinterestedness, and do not regard self-interest as a viable motivation for scientific work. The objective for scientists is to advance scientific knowledge rather than personal interests. Fourth, scientific knowledge that has proven to be reliable and accurate is to be readily available to every member of the scientific community, a phenomenon that Merton calls ‘communismâ₠¬â„¢. [6] Merton’s sketch of all four principles in the article is brief. Organised scepticism receives especially short shrift with just about two paragraphs[7]. In these two paragraphs Merton conspicuously fails to provide a definition of it altogether and instead discusses the wider context of this ‘methodological and institutional mandate’[8] for scientists. The question is whether Merton has presented a picture of science that is accurate today. The problem is that it is not quite clear what Merton actually says. He has been praised for his eloquence, but his admirable articulacy sometimes obscures the meaning of his thesis. The essay will now examine some of the more obvious criticisms. The first difficulty concerns the main thrust of Merton’s argument. In arguing that four normative principles organise scientific endeavour, is he making a normative or descriptive point? Are these observations of empirical nature or do they outline prescriptive ideals that ought to guide scientists in their work? We may take Merton’s thesis to articulate some more general prescriptive standards of science, which ideally ought to be applied in the scientist’s work in order to facilitate scientific progress. [9] Merton makes a point then which requires empirical verification. He has to show that science conducted in this way promotes scientific advancement which scientific work conducted contrary to these norms would not. Understandably this is hard to prove. It requires a historical argument, a narrative of successful scientific development, which to a certain degree he attempts to provide in his article.[10] So what does Merton try to say with his four criteria? The list of norms does not allow us to differentiate between valid and invalid science. It also fails to provide us with guidance as to what good and bad science is in a more general context. Perhaps at some time in the future, science requires secrecy and the exclusion of some parts of the scientific community from the results of scientific work. In fact, critics pointed out that Merton’s thesis works on the peculiar assumption that only academic science is science. Industrial research must by nature fail to comply with his standards of enquiry and hence cannot aspire to be science[11]. A nonsensical conclusion since much of sciences progress is owed to research in an economic and entrepreneurial environment, conducted for reasons of profit and the furtherance of self-interest. Yet, perhaps all these interpretations of Merton’s argument overlook the obvious. Possibly, his four standards of scientific discovery only make an observation on the nature of science in general. In this way Merton must be understood to make a simply descriptive point that scientific conduct is regulated by norms that may not always be explicit and unarticulated. If we would take him to argue this, his argument then all of a sudden fits into the wider functional theory of science that he was keen to advocate[12]. Merton argues that the adherence to the four norms produces a system of knowledge that has features that we associate with science, and which have subsequently have come to be synonymous with science. The scientific ethos is then only a historical by-product and Merton’s succinct formulation of this ethos in four principles of scientific behaviour simply describes the way in which science is done. Research that does not comply with these standards may still be science but does not contribute to science as a coherent system of human behaviour. Merton’s normative structure of science thus tells us something about the way in which science has come to sustain itself as a system of knowledge[13]. The four standards of scientific enquiry fulfil a function in generating systematic knowledge that contributes to the advancement of science as a coherent system of human interaction within a (academic) community. Critics have pointed out that this vision of science is not less problematic than the ones we have sketches above. Two general accusations have been levelled against this Mertonian notion of science. The first criticism argues that Merton is simply stating the obvious or, even worse, that his argument is tautological[14]. The second criticism is of different calibre and claims that Merton’s normative vision of science advocates one particular type of scientific endeavour that de-legitimises other forms of research[15]. Both criticisms warrant some closer examination. The first criticism is easily outlined and echoes some points made earlier. If Merton believes that the normative principles structure scientific knowledge then he can be taken to make either of two points which are different in scope and nature. First, he may simply be stating the obvious, describing the way in which science is being conducted. Any future changes to this may result in the end of science as we know it and as a coherent sub-system of human conduct but may give rise to the development of a new system of science, along different, yet unknown lines. Norms and standards, in this scheme of things, are contingent yet critical for the type of science that is currently institutionalised universally. Unless Merton attaches some value to this current form of science, his observation is bordering on the tautological, since it fails to tell us anything about the way in which we ought to do things in science. If he does associate the current state of science with a particular valu e, he needs to tell us what is so valuable about this specific type of science, an issue that philosophers of science discuss through the lens of scientific innovation[16]. Philosophically, this requires some wider justification, something that Merton fails to do. In fact, there is a plethora of criticism that targets exactly the kind of (modern) science that Merton seems to find commendable. Feminist and environmentalist criticism abounds. So there is evidence to the contrary that he would have to confront. The second criticism draws on radical theory and maintains that Merton’s normative notion of science acts as a gatekeeper to exclude other, conflicting visions of science. His theory of scientific endeavour thus fulfils a political function that translates into the suppression of deviant forms of scientific conduct. Bourdieu makes this claim forcefully in an article on Merton’s sociology of science in 1990 when in an unflattering way he calls Merton’s work ‘a hagiographic vision’[17]. Further on he writes: †¦ if Merton takes note of the existence of the work of scientific production, he continues to apply to it analytical categories which hare imposed on him by this very world itself, so that what he present as a description of its positive laws of functioning is often little more than a record of the normative rules which are officially professed by its members. He therefore departs only in appearance from the ‘internal’ reading†¦[18] This is a damning observation since the critical content of Merton’s theory of normative science resides in its ability to provide an external as well as internal picture of what scientists do[19]. If Merton, as Bourdieu claims, only replicates in his vision of science the self-understanding of scientists, his theory is little more than self-congratulatory contribution to identity formation in the scientific community. On a more sinister note, propagating these standards of scientific enquiry would deny other scientifically orientated behaviour the badge of honour. Merton’s theory of normative science would then become the main vehicle for defending a particular version of science, resting on values and principles that are far from universal. This is the point where theory spills over into institutional practice and may result in exclusion of scientists that fail to conform to a particular type of scientific behaviour. A brief example may demonstrate this problem. In 1994 two American professors published ‘The Bell Curve’, a sociological investigation into the link between race and intelligence[20]. Their work presented ample empirical material while their conclusions were particularly repugnant. The book included an argument for and against various social policies and therefore the authors deliberately placed their work in a political context. Although they adhered to all obvious scientific standards critics labelled the book as a political treatise with a foul set of conclusions. One of these conclusions was the authors maintained that there was evidence that African Americans were of inferior intelligence to White Americans. There can be no doubt that this repulsive claim strikes everyone who does not harbour racist attitudes as demonstrably false. Academic critics consequently slated the books’ premises and conclusions and pointed to a whole array of either ethical or method ological inconsistencies in the work[21]. What does this mean in the context of Mertonian imperatives for scientific discovery? First of all, Merton’s vision of science claims that disinterestedness is a norm of scientific enquiry, hence however abhorrent the conclusions are scientists must pay no heed to the social or political ramifications of their endeavours if they wanted to preserve science as a coherent system of human activity. Given the social context of race studies this is a plea for unethical behaviour while salvaging an internal code of practice that may have repellent consequences. To contend that scientists can conduct their enquiries in a bubble of self-contained norms is nonsensical. It is far more likely that scientists constantly re-negotiate the standards and norms of their work[22]. Science is a social endeavour, yet the social norms that apply to scientific conduct are drawn from wider society not from the reclusive community of academics only. Secondly, however, it is exactly the violation of the proclaimed standards of scientific behaviour which allows scientists to re-assert and re-evaluate the boundaries of science as a particular type of human conduct. Adherence to the self-professed norms thus does not advance science as a body of knowledge but produces a sterile and eventually inert body of knowledge that lost its connection with the purpose of scientific enquiry, to better the human condition. Thus science is in a constant process of boundary revision and definition, interacting with society and its needs. Merton’s internalist functionalist vision of science cannot accommodate this aspect of scientific endeavour and hence fails to acknowledge the actual purpose of science in the wider context as well as its resources for constructive change and transformation. References Pierre Bourdieu. Animadversiones in Mertonem. In Robert K. Merton. Consensus and Controversy, edited by Jon Clark, Celia Modgil, and Sohan Modgil. London New York Philadelphia: Falmer Press 1990, pp.297-301. Cynthia Fuchs Epstein. Seredipitous Science and The Prepared Mind: Merton on the Microenvironments of Discoveries. In Contemporary Sociology. A Journal of Reviews, September 2005, Vol.34, No.5, pp.477-453. Steven Fraser (ed.). The Bell Curve Wars. Race, Intelligence and the Future of America. New York: Basic Books 1995. Lowell L. Hargens. What is Mertonian Sociology of Science? In Scientometrics, Vol. 60 (2004), No.1, pp.63-70. R. Herrnstein and C. Murray. The Bell Curve. New York: Free Press 1994. John Law and David French. Normative and Interpretive Sociologies of Science. In The Sociological Review, 22 (1974), pp.581-595. Robert K. Merton. The Normative Structure of Science [1942]. In Robert K. Merton. The Sociology of Science. Theoretical and Empirical Investigations. Edited and with an Introduction by Norman W. Storer. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, pp.267-278. Nico Stehr. Robert K. Merton’s Sociology of Science. In Robert K. Merton. Consensus and Controversy, edited by Jon Clark, Celia Modgil, and Sohan Modgil. London New York Philadelphia: Falmer Press 1990, pp.285-294. Nina Toren. The Scientific Ethos Debate: A Meta-Theoretical View. In Sic. Sci. Med., Vol. 17, No. 21 (1983), pp.1665-1672. Jonathan H. Turner. The Structure of Sociological Theory. Homewood: The Dorsey Press 1978. 1 Footnotes [1] Epstein, Serendipitous Science, p.447 [2] On the background of the sociology of science cf. Hargens, Mertonian sociology. [3] Merton, Normative Structure. [4] Toren, Scientific Ethos Debate, p.1666 [5] Merton, Normative Structure, p.277 [6] Merton, Normative Structure, p.273-275 [7] Merton, Normative Structure, p.277-278 [8] Merton, Normative Structure, p.277 [9] Toren, Scientific Ethos Debate, p.1667 [10] Merton calls for a ‘comparative study of the institutional structure of science’. Merton, Normative Structure, p.269 [11] Stehr, Merton’s Sociology of Science, p.286 [12] For his contribution to functionalism cf. Turner, Structure of Sociological Theory, pp.69-76 [13] Law and French, Normative and Interpretive Sociologies, p.584-585 [14] Toren, Scientific Ethos Debate, p.1666; Bourdieu, Animadversiones, p.299 [15] Law and French, Normative and Interpretive Sociologies, p.585 [16] Law and French, Normative and Interpretive Sociologies, p.581-585; Toren, Scientific Ethos Debate, p.1668 [17] Bourdieu, Animadversiones, p.298 [18] Bourdieu, Animadversiones, p.298 [19] Stehr, Robert K. Merton’s Sociology, p.289 and Law and French, Normative and Interpretive Sociologies, p.582 [20] R. Herrnstein and C. Murray. The Bell Curve. New York: Free Press 1994 [21] cf. Steven Fraser (ed.). The Bell Curve Wars. New York: Basic Book 1995 [22] Law and French, Normative and Interpretive Sociologies, p.586

The Hobbit by JRR Tolkein :: essays research papers

The Hobbit Title: The Hobbit Author: J.R.R. Tolkien Setting: The setting of the story takes place in the lands of Wilderland. It is through Wilderland that the hobbit and the dwarves travel to retrieve their lost treasure. As they move on through Wilderland, they encounter different people and different problems, making it more of an adventure. Characters: protagonists: Bilbo Baggins- he is the main character of story. The tiny hobbit is convinced by the great wizard Gandalf to undertake a long journey with thirteen dwarves to help them retrieve their lost treasure. Bilbo, at first, seems to be of no use to the dwarfs, almost getting them killed by the giant trolls. Eventually he shows his value to dwarves by saving them numerous times from death and imprisonment. Thorin- He is the most important dwarf. His father was the king under the mountain of Lonely Mountain. After the fall of his kingdom, the treasure that belonged to his father was lost to the evil dragon Smaug. He leads the other twelve dwarfs in hopes of regaining the treasure and his kingdom. Gandalf- He is the great wizard who helped organize the adventure. At first he travels with the dwarves and the hobbit but leaves them because he has other business to attend to. Beorn- is a large man who can change shapes into other animals. He lives by himself in large house with animals who he can speak to. He helps the dwarves and the hobbit after they have escaped from the goblins. He later joins them in the Battle of the Five Armies to help defeat the goblins and and the wargs. Bard- He is the man who slays Smaug and becomes the new master of the town where the men dwell on Long Lake. antagonists: the trolls (Bert, Tom, Bill)- they capture the dwarves and Bilbo with the intention of eating them. They are saved when Gandalf creates confusion between them (the trolls) allowing the adventurers to escape. Goblins- they also capture the adventurers but not before Thorin could kill the Great Goblin and then escape. This caused them to pursue the group and their anger towards them led to the cause the Battle of the Five Armies. Smaug- He is the evil dragon who takes over Lonely Mountain and all its gold within it. He is stirred from his sleep by Bilbo and while trying to destroy the town on the river, he is killed by Bard. Exposition: The general situation is revealed by the narrator who tells the story in the third person. The narrator makes direct comments usually explaining parts of the story that won't be made clear until later in the novel.